Long and short a, e, i, o, uDoubled consonants are supposed to show when the letters a, e, i, o, u in words of more than one syllable have a short sound, as in matter, hemmed, hidden, dotty, tubby, rather than long, as in mate, theme, hide, dote, tube. When followed by just one consonant, or several consonants and a vowel, a, e, i, o, u are meant to be 'closed' , with a short sound, as in: am, ample; ten, tender; pin, pinked; pond ponder; bun bunker.When followed by a single consonant and a vowel, they are ‘open’ and meant to be long; male, halo; peter, period; fine, final; sole, solo; tube, tubular'. If a stressed short vowel before a single consonant and another vowel is to be short, or is to stay short, it should be followed by a doubled consonant: allergy, petty, Finnish, dolly, butter. Schoolchildren spend much time learning to apply this rule when adding suffixes to short words: cut + er → cutter, prefer + ed → preferred; but: cute + er→ cuter, enter +ed → entered.Sadly, at least 1,700 words of more than one syllable disobey the ‘closed /short' - 'open / long’ vowel system in 5 ways: 1. At least 567 common words fail to double the consonant after a short, stressed vowel, e.g. 'habit, very, similar, body, study'. 2. 219 words have needlessly doubled consonants after unstressed vowels, e.g. 'account, terrific, immense, occur, hurrah', undermining their regular use, as in: accurate, terror, simmer, occupy, hurry. 3. Nearly 200 words end with a surplus –e: (give, promise – cf.spiv drive; surprise tennis). 4. Around 200 words have irregular spellings for a, e, i, o and u (plait, bread, pretty, cough, touch), sometimes with missing doubled consonants as well (many, women, sausage, money). 5. At least 665 words do not use the long vowel method, of 'male, mere, mile, mole, mule': 87 for long a (late - wait, straight, eight), 373 long e (eke – seek, speak, shriek) - [e-e is used just in 86 words], 79 long i (while - style, whilst, island, height), 100 long o (mole – bowl, roll, soul), 26 long u (use - youth, juice, feud, lewd, beauty, Tuesday). All common words affected by the five irregularities are shown below in the following order: 1) Omitted consonant doubling; 2) Needless consonant doubling; 3) Surplus -e endings; 4) Exceptions to a, e, i, o, u; 5) Exceptions to a-e, i-e, o-e, u-e and 459 unpredictable spellings for the /ee/ sound. The exceptions dilute the English 'long/short' system so much that hundreds of spellings simply have to be learned word by word, instead of being spelt systematically, like 'pal, pale, pallid'. They were made irregular mainly with careless changes to the original English spelling system and are now most responsible for making learning to write English exceptionally difficult and time-consuming. Most of them cause reading difficulties as well, not just spelling ones: e.g. hide, hidden – hideous; arrow - arrive (cf. arise); save - have; ouch - touch. --------------------------------------------------------------1) Words of more than one syllable without doubled consonants after their short, stressed vowel (which undermine the 500+ words with doubling, e.g. cabbage, chicken, adder...). (Only one-syllable words lengthened with suffixes have systematic consonant doubling: e.g. beg – begged, beggar, begging; fat – fatten, fatty). Cabaret, cabin, cabinet, distribute, elaborate(X2), fabulous, habit, inhabit, liberal, liberty, nebula, probable, prohibit, rebel(noun), robin, tribute. Articulate, binoculars, crocodile, decade, decorate, document, executive, faculty, placard, recognise, record(n), ridiculous, second(n), secondary, secular, vacuum, vicar. Accurate, broccoli, hiccough, hiccup, occupy, piccolo, soccer, succulent, tobacco. Echo, mechanism. Chequered, lacquer, liquor, liquorice. Academy, adequate, body, credit, deciduous, edible, edit, educate, federal, graduate(X2), hideous, idiot, madam, medal, medical, moderate(X2), modern, modest, pedal, pedigree, produce(n), product, radical, radish, ridicule, shadow, study, video, widow. Café, certificate, magnificent, Pacific, profit, reference, refuge, refuse (n), significant, specific, agony, brigand, dragon, flagon, frigate, hexagonal, jaguar, negative, regular, sugar, vigorous, wagon, Ability, abolish, analysis, apologise, astrology, balance, bilious, calendar, celebrate, celery, chalet, civilian, colony, column, delegate(X2), deliberate(X2), delicacy, deluge, demolish, develop, element, elephant, eligible, expel, facilities, felon, galaxy, helicopter, holiday, invalid(adj), italic, knowledge, lapel, lily, melody, melon, metropolitan, military, morality, motel, olive, palace, palate, pelican, policy, polish, politics, polythene, probability, qualify, quality, reality, relative, relevant, relic, salad, salary, salmon, salon, skeleton, solemn, solid, solitary, talent, talon, telescope, theology, tolerate, valentine, valiant, valid, value, ventriloquist, vitality, volume, voluntary. Abominable, academic, amateur, atomic, barometer, calamity, camera, camouflage, cemetery, chemical, chemistry, comedy, comet, comic, criminal, damage, democrat, dominate, domino, dynamic, economic, eliminate, emerald, emigrate, epidemic, family, famished, feminine, glamour, image, kilometre, laminate(x2), lemon, limit, memorise, memory, plumber, preliminary, premier, premise, primitive, prominent, promise, remedy, semi, similar, simile, thermometer, timid, vomit. Aluminium, animal, anonymous, anorak, astonish, astronomy, banish, banister, benefit, canopy, cinema, clinical, conifer, continue, degenerate(x2), economy, electronic, enemy, energy, finish, granary, honest, honour, January, lieutenant, linear, manage, manor, manual, manuscript, menace, menu, mineral, minimal, minimum, minister, minute(n), monarch, monastery, monitor, monument, opinion, organic, panic, penalty, penetrate, planet, punish, senate, sinister, spaniel, spinach, strenuous, supersonic, tenor, tonic, vanish, venison, vinegar.Capita, capital, capitol, copy, deputy, dilapidated, epic, episode, leper, opera, operate, popular, proper, property, rapid, separate(x2), tapestry, tepid, topic, tropics. America, Arab, arable, arid, asparagus, authority, baron, beret, caramel, caravan, caricature, carol, ceremony, chariot, charity, cherish, clarity, comparative, comparison, conspiracy, coral, derelict, empirical, experiment, florist, foreign, forest, garage(UK), herald, heritage, heroin/, heroine, heron, historic, horoscope, inherent, inherited, majority, merit, minority, miracle, moral, necessarily, numerical, orange, origin, parasol, parish, peril, periscope, perish, popularity, primarily, priority, quarantine, sheriff, sincerity, spirit, sterilise, therapist, transparent, very.Acid, adolescent, anticipated, capacity, decimal, discipline, electricity, explicit, fascinate, glacier(UK), municipal, oscillate, pacifist, participate, precipice, prosecute, publicity, recipe, simplicity, solicitor, specify, specimen, velocity; glisten, listen; convalescent, crescent. Gratitude, aquatic, athletic, atom, baton, botany, British, catalogue, catapult, category, citizen, city, compatible, competitive, critic, critical, dedicate, diplomatic, lateral, latitude, literal, literary, magnetic, mathematics, metal, monotonous, obliterate, pathetic, petal, pity, platinum, platypus, poetic, political, satin, saturate, Saturday, Saturn, static, strategy, tetanus, veteran, yeti. Avenue, average, cavalry, cavern, cavity, civic, civil, clever, controversy, crevice, deliver, devil, driven, eleven, equivalent, ever, evidence, given, gravity, havoc, hover, javelin, lavender, navigate, never, novice, poverty, privilege, proverb, providence, quiver, ravenous, reverend, river, rivet, savage, scavenge, seven, shiver.Hazard, lizard, lozenge, wizard, wizened; deposit, closet, desert, designate(x2), desolate(x2), hesitate, miserable, positive, presence, present, president, prison, resident, risen, visible, visit; scissors. 56 words have irregularly spelt short vowels and missing doubled consonants: Any, berry/bury, burial, endeavour, heaven, heavy, heifer, jealous, jeopardy, leopard, many, meadow, peasant, pheasant, pleasant, ready (already), steady, threaten, weapon, zealous,busy, chrysalis, cylinder, cynical, lyric, physical, physics, synagogue, synonym, syrup, typical, tyranny, women, colour, courage, cousin, covenant, cover, covet, covey, dozen, govern, honey, monetary, money, nourish, onion, oven, shovel, slovenly, somersault, stomach, thorough. Sausage. Courier.2) Words with needlessly doubled consonants (i.e. not after a stressed short vowel; the stressed syllable is underlined). - Compare: abridge, acute, adrenalin, afar, alone...Abbreviate. Accompany, accomplish, accord, accordance, accordion, account, accrue, accumulate, accuse, accustom. Address(uk). Affair, affect, affection, affectionate, affluent, afford, chauffeur, differential, diffusion, effect, efficient, effluent, effusive, giraffe, graffiti, offence, offend, offensive, official, officious, paraffin, sheriff, sufficient. Aggravate, aggressive, suggest. Alliance, allotment, allow, allowance, allowed/aloud, ballistic, balloon, caterpillar, collage, collapse, collect, collection, collide, constellation, controlled, excellent, hello, illegal, illegible, illiterate, illuminate, illusion, illustration, installation, intellectual, jewellery, llama, marvellous, parallel, pastille, roller, satellite, swollen, tonsillitis, traveller(UK), virtually, wholly, woollen.Accommodation, ammunition, command, commemorate, commence, commercial, commission, commit, commodities, commotion, communication, communion, community, commuter, immaculate, immediate, immense, immersion, immortal, immune, programme, programmer, recommend.Anniversary, announce, annoy, annul, connect, Finn/fin, inn, mayonnaise, personnel, questionnaire, tyranny. Appal, apparatus, apparent, appendix, applaud, applause, appliance, apply, appoint, appreciate, apprehensive, apprentice, approach, appropriate(x2), approve, approximate(x2), hippopotamus, opportunity, oppose, sapphire, supply, support, suppose. Arrange, array, arrest, arrive, barricade, correct, correlation, correspond, curriculum, erratic, hurrah, interrupt, irregular, irrigation, occurrence, serrated, surrender, surreptitious, surround, terrific, torrential, verruca. Assail, assassin, assassinate, assault, assemble, assert, assessment, assessor, assign, assist, assistant, associate(x2), assort, assume, cassette, dessert, embassy, essential, lasso, moose/mousse, necessarily, necessary, possess, possessive, possibility.Attach, attack, attain, attempt, attend, attention, attorney, attract, attributed, battalion, cigarette, mattress, omelette, palette, silhouette. 3) Words with surplus –e endings which obscure the vowel-lengthening function of –e in words like 'define, bone, care, endure, advise, inflate, ignite, drive, save, survive'.Destine, determine, discipline, doctrine, examine, engine, famine, feminine, genuine, heroine, imagine, iodine, intestine, jasmine, masculine, medicine, urine, gone, shone. Are, (cf. care, endure, mature). Conjure, exposure, failure, figure, fissure, injure, measure, pleasure, pressure, procedure, treasure. Adventure, agriculture, architecture, capture, caricature, creature, culture, departure, expenditure, feature, fracture, furniture, future, gesture, lecture, legislature, literature, manufacture, miniature, mixture, nature, picture, puncture, scripture, signature, structure, temperature, torture, venture, vulture. Purchase, premise, promise, purpose. (cf. atlas, devise, propose). Accurate, adequate, affectionate, candidate, chocolate, climate, considerate, corporate, delicate, desperate, extortionate, fortunate, frigate, illiterate, immaculate, immediate, intermediate, intricate, laureate, legitimate, obstinate, palate, passionate, pirate, private, proportionate, senate, Composite, Definite, exquisite, favourite, granite, infinite, opposite. In 25 words the –ate endings are used for two different words (to deliberate a deliberate act). Advocate, alternate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, designate, desolate, dictate, duplicate, elaborate, estimate, graduate, intimate, laminate, moderate, separate, subordinate, syndicate, triplicate (cf. inflate, dilate, obliterate). Give, forgive, have, live (cf. drive, save, alive), abrasive, abusive, adhesive, aggressive, apprehensive, comprehensive, compulsive, conclusive, creative, cursive, decisive, defensive, depressive, derisive, detective, dismissive, divisive, effusive, elusive, evasive, excessive, exclusive, expensive, explosive, expressive, extensive, fugitive, impressive, impulsive, incisive, inclusive, initiative, intensive, invasive, massive, motive, narrative, objective, obtrusive, offensive, oppressive, passive, pensive, permissive, perspective, persuasive, possessive, productive, progressive, prospective, radioactive, repulsive, respective, responsive, selective, sensitive, subjective, submissive, subversive, successive. 4) Words with irregular spellings for short /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/ - (Letters in red are redundant.)A - (bad, cat, rang, chav) - plaid, plait, meringue, have.E - (bed, bend) – but : Bread/bred, breadth, breast, breath, dead, deaf, dealt, death, dread, dreamt, head, health, lead(x2), leant, leapt, meant, read(x2), ream, spread, sweat, thread, threat, wealth. Breakfast, cleanliness, cleanse, endeavour, feather, heather, heaven, heavy, instead, leather, measure, stealthy, treacherous, treadmill, treasure, weather. Friend, every, said, says, Wednesday. Some lack doubled consonants as well (c.f. jelly, teddy, penny): Berry/bury. Any, many. Jeopardy, leopard. Heifer. Jealous, meadow, peasant, pheasant, pleasant, ready, (already), steady, weapon, zealous. Different in US and UK: Leisure, lieutenant [leesure/lesure, lutennant/leftennant]. I – (in, it, sit ) - except: Build, built, busy, English, pretty, sieve, vineyard, women. Abyss, crypt, crystal, cyclical, cygnet, cymbals, cyst, eucalyptus, gym, hymn, hypnotise, lynch, lynx, mystery, myth, Olympics, rhythm, syllable, symbol, symmetry, sympathy, symptom, synchronise, syndicate, syndrome, synthesis, system. Without doubled consonants as well (unlike ‘syllable’ and ‘symmetry’): Chrysalis, cylinder, cynical, lyric, physics, synagogue, synonym, syrup, typical, tyranny. O – (on hot spot) – irregular mainly just after w and qu: Swallow, swamp, swan, swap, waft, wand, wander, want/wont, wanton, warrant, warren, warrior, was, wash, wasp, watch, watt, wattle, what. Quality, quadrangle, quantity, quarantine, quarry, squabble, squad, squander, squash, squat. + Cough, trough; laurel, sausage. U – (up, under) - Next to m, n , v and w, the short /u/ sound is often spelt o or o-e.(* quite often without doubled consonants too, e.g. money– cf. funny).Among, Monday, money, monger, mongrel, monk, monkey, month, mother, smother. Comfort, company, compass, pommel/pummel, stomach. Come, some/sum. Front, son, ton/tonne , tongue, sponge. Done, none/nun, nothing. Honey, onion. Above, cover, covet, covey, covenant, dove, glove, govern, love, oven, shove, shovel, slovenly.Won/ one, wonder, worry. Once. Country, nourish, young. Enough. Not next to m, n or v: Double, couple, trouble. Rough, slough(x2), tough. Brother, colour, courage, cousin, dozen, does, hiccough/hiccup, other, Southern, thorough*, touch. Blood, flood.5) Words with irregular spellings for a-e, i-e, o-e, u-e, followed by e-e (because e-e is no longer the main spelling for the /ee/ sound, as it used to be until the 15th century).A-e (late, tale) Ale/ail, bale/bail, male/mail, pale/pail, sale/sail, tale/tail, whale/wail, assail, cocktail, detail, fail, hail, jail, nail, prevail, rail, retail, snail, trail, Main/mane, pain/pane, plain/plane, rain/reins(reindeer)/reign, vain/vein, Abstain, brain, chain... (in 31 words) Skein; deign, feign; campaign; champagne. Crane, lane, sane, membrane. Made/maid, aid, braid, laid, paid, raid, afraid. Brake/break, stake/steak. Aim, claim, exclaim, maim, proclaim. Place/plaice. Haste, paste, taste, waste/waist; Daisy, praise, raise, raisin. Traitor, waiter. Ate/eight, bate/bait, grate/great, straight/straits, wait/weight. Fête, freight. Faith. Halfpenny, neighbour. Able, cable, cradle, fable, gable, ladle, sabre, stable, table – (cf. label). I-e - (ice) - except: I /eye/aye/ay, bite/bight(bay), knight/night, lite/light, mite/might, rite/right/write, slight/sleight(trick), sight/site/cite. Alight, blight, bright, delight, fight, flight, fright, frighten, lightning, mighty, tight. Height; indict. Behind, bind, blind, find, grind, hind, kind, mind, ninth, pint, rind, wind (x2); Bible (cf. libel), bridle, disciple, idle, rifle, stifle, trifle. Child, mild (cf. children, mildew), wild, whilst; island; climb. Eider-down, Fahrenheit, kaleidoscope. Either, neither (UK pronunciation). Choir. Resign, sign. Tire/tyre, asylum, cycle, cypress, dyke, dynamic, dynamite, dynamo, hyacinth, hydrangea, hydrogen, hyena, hygrometer, hypothesis, nylon, paralyse, psychology, pylon, python, rhyme, scythe, style, thyroid, type, tyrant. O - e, -o - (open, so) – quite regular in more recently imported words: Alcove, associated, chrome... video, volcano, zero. Except: Bungalow. Cocoa. Oboe. Pharaoh. Depot. In older English words, the o-e/-o sound is spelt very unpredictably: Approach, boast, boat, broach/brooch, cloak, coach, coal, coast, coat, coax, cockroach, croak, float, foal, foam, gloat, goal, goat, groan, load, loaf, loan, loathe, moan, oaf, oak, oath, oats, poach, road, roam, roast, shoal, soak, soap, stoat, throat, toad, toast. Bold, cold, fold, gold, hold, old, scold, sold, solder, soldier, told. Folk, yoke/yolk. Holster. Bolt, colt, dolt, jolt, revolt. Mould, moult, sole/soul, shoulder, smoulder. Knoll, pole/poll, role/ roll, scroll, stroll, toll, troll, swollen, holy/ wholly. Control, enrol, patrol. Host, most, post, postal, poster. Both, gross, noble, only, sloth. Goes. Mauve. Blown, bowl, grown, growth, known, mown, own, shown, sown/sewn, thrown, rowan. Blow, bow(x2), crow, flow, glow, grow, know, low, mow, row(x2), show, slow, snow, sow(x2), stow, throw, tow. Arrow, barrow, bellow, below, billow, burrow, elbow, fellow, follow, gallows, hollow, marrow, narrow, pillow, shadow, shallow, swallow, sorrow, sparrow, tomorrow, wallow, widow, willow, window, yellow. Doe, floe, foe, hoe, roe, sloe, toe, woe. Oh/owe. So/sew. Dough, though. Ago, also, fro, go, hello, no. Alone, arose, bone, bony, broke, choke, chose, chosen, close, clothes, clover, code, cone, cope, cove, dole, dome, dose, doze, drone, drove, froze, frozen, grocer, grope, hole, holy, home, hope, hose, joke, lone, mole, nose, open, over, poke, pony, pope, primrose, rode, rope, rose, scope, slope, smoke, spoke, stoke, stole, stolen, stone, strode, stroke, tadpole, throne, tone, whole, woke, wove, wrote, yodel. U - e, -ue – (use, tuba; cue, due) – In the stem of words, few exceptions: you/ewe/yew, Eucalyptus, ewer, youth. Feud, feudal, neutral, pneumatic, pseudo, rheumatism. Lewd, newt, pewter, sewage, jewel, steward. Juice, nuisance, suicide, suitable, suitcase. Beauty. Nuclear. Tuesday. In endings unpredictable: Cue/queue, due/dew, sue. Argue, avenue, barbecue, continue, imbue, issue, pursue, rescue, revenue, statue, subdue, tissue, value, devalue, venue, virtue. Chew, few, Jew, knew, new, pew, spew, stew, askew, curfew, curlew, mildew, nephew. View, interview, review. Emu, menu. E - e / ea / ee ... – (deed, lead, concede, siege, conceive, police, people, key, ski ...) The spellings of the /ee/ sound were made unpredictable mainly in the 15th C, when court scribes were obliged to switch from French to English. They changed most e-e spellings (like Chaucer's 'seke, speke, shreke, beleve') to the many different ones we still use now. Johnson's dictionary of 1755 made them even worse by giving 48 words 2 spellings: Bee/be, beech/beach, been/bean, beet/beat, breech/breach, cheep/cheap, creek/creak, deer/dear, discreet/discrete, eerie/eyrie, eve/eaves, feet/feat, flee/flea, freeze/frieze, jeans/genes, Greece/grease, heel/heal, hear/here, key/quay, leech/leach, leek/leak, meet/meat, need/knead, pee/pea, peace/piece, peek/peak, peel/peal, peer/pier, reed/readx2[reed/red], reek/wreak, reel/real, sealing/ceiling, seamen/semen, see/sea, seem/seam, seen/scene, serial/cereal, sheer/shear, sheikh/chic, steel/steal, sweet/suite, tee/tea, teem/team, wee/we, week/weak, wheel/weal. In UK also: geezer/geyser, leaver/lever.Open e : Adhesive, arena, cafeteria, cedar, chameleon, Chinese, comedian, compete, complete, concrete, convene, convenient, decent, demon, equal, era, even, evil, experience, exterior, extreme, female, fever, frequent, genie, genius, hero, hyena, imperial, inferior, ingredient, intermediate, legal, legion, lenient, material, medium, mere, meteor, meter, millipede, mysterious, obedient, period, peter, polythene, precede, previous, query, recent, recess, region, relay, scheme, sequence, sequin, series, serious, serum, species, sphere, stampede, strategic, superior, supreme, swede, tedious, theme, theory, these, torpedo, trapeze, vehicle, Venus, zero. He, me, she. Beef, beer, beetle, between, bleed, bleep, breed, breeze, career, cheek, cheer, cheese, cheetah, creep, deed, deep, eel, exceed, feeble, feed, feel, fleece, fleet, geese, greed, green, greet, indeed, jeep, jeer, keel, keen, keep, kneel, meek, needle, peep, pioneer, preen, proceed, proceedings, proceeds, queen, queer, reef, screech, screen, seed, seek, seep, seesaw, sheep, sheet, sleek, sleep, sleet, sleeve, smithereens, sneer, sneeze, speech, speed, squeeze, steep, steeple, steer, street, succeed, sweep, sweet, teeth, teetotal, thirteen, tweed, tweezers, weed, weep, wheedle, wheeze, wildebeest. Appeal, beacon, bead, beak, beam, beard, beast, beaver, beneath, bleach, bleak, bleat, breathe, cease, cheat, clean, clear, colleague, conceal, congeal, cream, crease, creature, deal, dean, decrease, defeat, disease, dream, dreary, each, eager, eagle, ear, ease, east, Easter, eat, fear, feast, feature, freak, gear, gleam, glean, heap, heat, heath, heathen, heave, increase, leadx2, leaf, league, lean, leap, lease, leash, least, leave, meagre, meal, mean, measles, near, neat, ordeal, peach, peat, plead, please, pleat, preach, queasy, reach, really, reap, rear, reason, release, repeat, retreat, reveal, scream, seal, sear, season, seat, sheaf, sheath, smear, sneak, speak, spear, squeak, squeal, squeamish, steam, streak, stream, teach, teak, tearx2, tease, theatre, treacle, treason, treat, treaty, veal, wean, weary, weasel, weave, wheat, wreath, year, yeast, zeal. Open i: Albino, antique, aubergine, bikini, clementine, fatigue, guillotine, machine, magazine, margarine, marine, mosquito, plasticine, police, prestige, ravine, regime, routine, sardine, suite, tambourine, tangerine, trampoline, unique, vaseline, pizza.Achieve, belief, believe, brief , chief, diesel, field, fiend, fierce, grief, grieve, hygienic, medieval, niece, pierce, priest, relief, relieve, shield, shriek, siege, thief, thieve, tier, wield, yield. Caffeine, codeine, protein, seize, weir, weird, conceive /coneit, deceive /deceit, receive /receipt. Assorted variants: People; cathedral, secret; pizza, ski, souvenir; debris.Learning to read and write English could be made much easier by merely correcting some of the above irregularities which make it exceptionally difficult and time-consuming.Posted 1st July 2010 by Masha Bell (https://ift.tt/355j0pH) via /r/EnglishLinguistics https://ift.tt/2TYJeDS
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